Is the future of construction found in materials that already exist? Increasingly, instead of demolishing - we are reclaiming; instead of building from scratch - we are adapting. This is not only ecological, but also a completely new approach to architecture that could change the landscape of cities around the world.
Reclaiming and reusing building elements are becoming a sustainable alternative to costly demolition and energy-intensive new construction. The possibilities are vast: from the precise dismantling and reuse of individual components, such as bricks, beams or windows, to the complex transformation of entire buildings. At least, that's what one might conclude from how popular industrial spaces or vintage furnishings are. However, the reality is not just thriving post-factory spaces or stores with 1960s furniture. This transformation is not taking place evenly. Yes, in some countries, the principles of a circular economy are already shaping building standards. In the United States, for example, the number of adapted buildings increased by 7.6 percent between 2022 and 20231. More than 151,000 housing units are being built in buildings that previously served a completely different function. There are also regions of the world that still face barriers - regulatory, technological - that make it difficult to join the "trend" for re-use. There is a logical contradiction in this, because, after all, renewal should always be over tearing down and putting up again. And yet, sometimes mental barriers also make new again mean better.
Already in 2014, the authors of the publication "Re-use of structural elements: environmentally efficient recovery of building components" wrote that the problem of construction and demolition waste(C&D waste) requires systemic solutions at the European level. The first, of course, was the European Parliament's introduction of the Waste Directive in 2008. It was intended not only to minimize the negative impact of waste on the environment, but also to establish rules for its management, including the promotion of reuse and recycling of construction materials. According to the provision, reuse refers to a situation in which products or their components that are not waste are reused for the original purpose for which they were created. "Preparation for reuse" includes operations such as checking, cleaning or repairing components that have become waste so that they can re-enter circulation without further processing.
It is worth noting that the directive defines "reuse" quite narrowly - it does not cover situations where a component is not considered waste, but is used for a different purpose than originally intended. In order for a material to be reused as a secondary raw material, it must meet certainend-of-waste criteria. These requirements include, among other things, the universality of its use, the existence of a market for it, compliance with technical requirements and legal standards, and the absence of negative impacts on the environment and human health. And this again means precise regulation and quality control. In practice, it's a pebble not to go down such a path, as they say in corporations - a challenge for investors.
winds of positive change
Fortunately, things are not so bad in Europe. The northwestern part of the continent is consistently setting new standards. It is here that the idea of reclaiming and reusing elements works quite well as an organized system, supported by public policies, pilot projects and architectural strategies.
One of the most important efforts in this direction is the Facilitating the Circulation of Reclaimed Building Elements (FCRBE) project, which documents and promotes good practices in countries such as France, Belgium and the UK. France is the most active. In Tours, a comprehensive renovation of one neighborhood was carried out when social housing was built. As part of this redevelopment, 360 cubic meters of self-supporting solid stone facades were recovered and reused. Even more logistically challenging was a project in Strasbourg - there, 51 tons of finishing materials were recovered during the renovation of an early 20th century hospital. And here's an important note: the demolition contract took into account material recovery requirements from the planning stage, allowing for effective reuse.
Belgium also stands out for its systemic approach to re-use. In Lint, the developer responsible for the construction of public housing has created a detailed brick inventory system, complete with durability and performance tests. This shows that reclaimed materials can be treated with the same precision as new ones, but scientific methods of quality analysis should be included in the evaluation process.
In the UK, the reuse of materials is becoming a standard in public projects. In Manchester, the renovation of the historic City Hall included not only the reuse of metal and wood frame elements in the building itself, but also their incorporation into other city projects.
Europe is not alone in re-use
And what is the situation outside Europe? In the Pacific region, it is Australia that is coming to the forefront in terms of innovation. Sydney has seen the construction of the Quay Quarter Tower, designed by studios 3XN and BVN, and it is more than just another skyscraper. Described as "the world's first reuse skyscraper," it has become a symbol of a certain architectural revolution. Although its silhouette appears new, in fact the building was built on the skeleton of the 1976 AMP Center [design: PTW Architects]. The engineers and architects took on an unusual challenge: instead of tearing down and building from scratch, they preserved more than 95 percent of the original core, as well as numerous structural elements - beams, columns and slabs. The result? Saving some 12,000 tons of carbon dioxide and an example to the world that high-rise buildings can grow not only in height, but also in time.
In Asia's densely populated metropolises, where space is becoming a scarce commodity, designers are increasingly transforming existing buildings with entirely new functions in mind, rather than turning to solutions that require costly demolition and new construction. A particularly important aspect of this movement is the revitalization of buildings with historical value. Through reuse, former residences, government edifices and even abandoned factories or warehouses are given new life. In this way, their cultural significance is also preserved.
An example of this approach is in Mumbai, where the Open Atelier studio created its headquarters in a restored bungalow. The architects preserved the historic character of the building, keeping interference to a minimum, and blended the new functions harmoniously with the original architecture. The interiors are open workspaces, complemented by floors reminiscent of the era, with subtle lighting, with which they tastefully correspond with history.
Similar initiatives can be found throughout the region - in Vietnam, Southeast Asia's first tea factory has been given a new function. The 1.2-hectare site has been transformed into a modern tea museum, offering exhibition space, art installations, a café and a place to learn about tea culture. The factory consists of four historic buildings that not only have aesthetic value, but are also carriers of history and social memory. The architects decided to restore the oldest of the buildings - the main production warehouse - and create a cultural center in it. The building, previously seen as a low-value industrial building made of wood and sheet metal, was revitalized in a way that emphasized its historical value. During the renovation, redundant walls were removed, original elements were restored and the interior layout was adapted to the new functions. Simple materials were used, such as recycled steel, polycarbonate panels, local brick and a cement-earth mixture. Even the artwork was created from tea leaves and earthen paint. The building's exterior was coated with a new anti-corrosion coating, and its color is expected to serve as a backdrop for future projections. The undertaking was extremely economical, costing about $200 per square meter. The museum currently attracts roughly 300 visitors a day.
In the mountain valleys of China's Fujian province, thousands of abandoned tulou - traditional fortified buildings made of compacted earth - are getting new life. True, forty-six of them are listed as UNESCO World Heritage sites, but heritage recognition alone does little. Local communities are struggling to redevelop them. Tulou, once used for defense and housing, have been deteriorating for years, as their inhabitants migrated to the cities. Today, thanks to the Fujian Tulou Adaptive Reuse project, they are no longer mere monuments. Under the initiative, they are being transformed into cultural centers, meeting places, educational spaces and public institutions. The most important element of this project seems to be the combination of traditional construction techniques and modern solutions. The project won the Gold Award of the Holcim Awards 2023 for the Asia-Pacific region - it was recognized as an exemplary model for the preservation and integration of cultural heritage into social life.
Now let's look at Africa. Although some African countries lack formal circular economy regulations, in practice, the principles of recovery and reuse have been in place for a long time - both in traditional building techniques and modern architectural adaptations. South Africa stands out as one of the places where re-use is taking increasingly conscious forms. Neighborgood has a number of projects underway, including the transformation of a former office building on Bree Street in Cape Town into a creative coworking space organized around a central courtyard conducive to interaction and collaboration. It is also common practice in South Africa to create hybrid spaces that serve different functions depending on the needs of the community. For example, traditional hotels are being adapted for short-term stays and longer stays.
In addition to the conversion of entire buildings, the recovery of individual building materials plays a significant, though often informal, role in the African construction sector. Countries such as Burkina Faso, Rwanda, Senegal and Uganda have local markets. In Senegal, the secondary market even includes aluminum components, toilets and wooden components. The trade in building materials is mainly informal, catering generally to individual customers and homeowners. In the context of architectural reuse in Africa, it is worth noting the broader problem of the continent being treated as a dumping ground for waste from other parts of the world.
The problem of electro-waste also has an architectural dimension - it comes from disposed electronics and white goods, as well as from the dismantling, demolition and retrofitting of buildings. In the countries of the Global North, smart building control systems, LED lighting, HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) systems, as well as network and security infrastructure such as surveillance cameras and alarms are increasingly being replaced. Used or obsolete equipment is often transported to Africa, where there is no infrastructure to process it safely. According to United Nations University, 41.8 million tons of electro-waste were generated globally in 2014, of which only 16 percent was recycled2. In Ghana, Nigeria, illegal dumping of electro-waste has become commonplace. Residents, including children, engage in primitive recovery of valuable resources, exposing themselves to toxic substances. It leads to serious health problems: respiratory diseases, cancer, nervous system disorders. Although some African countries are attempting to combat this practice, the lack of adequate infrastructure and financial resources hinders effective counteraction. Illegal waste trafficking is a growing problem worldwide, accounting for 20 percent of waste shipments in the European Union3.
Setting aside the topic of electro-waste itself, while doing research for this article, I came across articles that spoke of the continent as a place where informal material recovery reigns supreme. Of course, they stated that "the landscape of adaptive reuse is more complex and diverse," but the overtones were clear - Africa is a place where poverty reigns, so everything possible is used in every way possible. It's as if there is one mindset and one economic situation on such a large continent. Only is this true? Or put another way - is such a phenomenon only there?
Will the architecture of the future be composed of leftovers?
© Magdalena Milert
and how about this re-use in our country?
What is your first thought about recycling in architecture? My associations go two ways. On the one hand, revitalized factories, plants, manufactories appear before my eyes, and on the other hand I think of allotment gardens. After all, that's where houses are made out of dicta and corrugated sheet metal, swans and flowerbeds are made out of used tires, and clothes are finished off, spending their last moments in being kneepads for weeding. Circular economy was here before it became fashionable.
And what do the official statistics say? Construction and demolition waste accounts for almost a third of all waste generated in the European Union. This is a huge scale - and Poland is not lagging behind. Despite growing environmental awareness and increasingly vocal calls for change, the system for recovering construction materials in our country is still crawling. Initiatives are emerging, but there is no unified strategy to bring about a real revolution in the industry. The report "Building Materials Recovery - Opportunities and Challenges," published in 2024, leaves no illusions: if we want to reduce waste and limit the exploitation of virgin raw materials, we must bet on recovery. We have few but promising examples. In 2023 in Wroclaw, a new office building of an energy company decided to do something that for many is still an experiment - recover and reuse the ceiling. Sound trivial? Maybe. But it's exactly this kind of solution, albeit singular for now, that can become the beginning of a bigger change. Because if a ceiling can be saved, why not an entire wall, floor or even the structure of a building?
Poland in recent years has become a real laboratory for adaptive reuse, especially of post-industrial buildings. In Warsaw, we can point to at least two projects showing how to breathe life into former factory walls: the Koneser Praga Center and the Powiśle Power Plant. Today these are complexes that combine retail, offices, restaurants and cultural spaces - and just a dozen years ago they were dilapidated, forgotten buildings. Then there's Manufaktura in Lodz, the Mazovian Center for Contemporary Art "Elektrownia" in Radom, Bolko Loft in Bytom - all of these places show that thoughtful revitalization can give old factories a completely new character: from art galleries to luxury apartments. Interestingly, such projects were initially treated as an architectural curiosity - a fashionable experiment that allowed historic buildings to be saved, while introducing modern solutions to the Polish landscape. Brick walls, huge windows, open spaces - these industrial elements, once synonymous with austerity, suddenly became a symbol of prestige. For a time, lofts in former factories were the most desirable (and most expensive) apartments in Poland. Today, the adaptation of post-industrial buildings is no longer just a fashion, but a full-fledged marketing strategy.
Along with the new life of the object also comes the question: who are these spaces for? The adaptation of former industrial plants is changing the landscape of cities, and often leads to gentrification. Factories that were once the heart of working-class neighborhoods are being transformed into exclusive spaces available mainly to wealthier residents and tourists. This can be seen, for example, in Warsaw's poor Praga district, where Koneser - although architecturally impressive - has become a place that dictates the new reality of the neighborhood: expensive cafes, elegant boutiques and high rents are gradually pushing out the existing residents. A similar mechanism can be seen in other cities. Manufaktura in Łódź or Elektrownia Powiśle are examples where post-industrial spaces have not only been revived, but have become symbols of transformation that do not always serve everyone. On the one hand - rescued monuments and urban development. On the other - the rising cost of living, the changing character of neighborhoods and the loss of their original social fabric.
Although there is growing talk in Poland of reusing buildings, the road to making such activities more widespread is a bumpy one. While the recovery of decorative elements, cladding or window woodwork is becoming standard, the reuse of structural parts of buildings - load-bearing walls, ceilings, even prefabricated modules - is still in the realm of experimentation. There is a lack of technology, know-how, financial preferences and, above all, the courage to move away from classic construction methods.
The Polish construction market is strongly tied to primary materials - cement, bricks, steel or glass are still the dominant raw materials that drive the sector. Investors, accustomed to predictable solutions, are often reluctant to look at recycled materials. Building standards and regulations? They were largely created at a time when reuse was a fringe, not a part of sustainability. As a result, projects attempting to implement solutions based on recycling can run into bureaucratic barriers. But even if one wants to build greener, another problem arises - logistics and infrastructure. Western European countries have specialized centers for sorting and redistribution of construction materials. In Poland, the system is just developing. Limited segregation possibilities, lack of well-functioning supply networks for recycled materials and insufficient number of construction waste processing companies make green building more complicated than traditional solutions.
Sooner or later, Polish regulations, the market and public expectations will have to change. New EU regulations, emphasis on a closed-loop economy and growing climate awareness will make construction based on reuse no longer an option, but a necessity. Paradoxically, Poland has more experience in this area than one might think. Reclaiming building materials and reusing existing structures is not a new fad, but a practice that has been known for centuries, often driven by necessity, especially in times of resource scarcity or after great destruction. And one of the most spectacular examples of recovery-based reconstruction is Warsaw, a city that was literally reborn from the ruins after World War II. The scale of destruction was unimaginable. During the Warsaw Uprising in 1944, German troops systematically destroyed the city; they turned more than 85 percent of the historic center into rubble. Particularly affected was the Old Town, where only a few tenements survived. The idea was to erase Polish history and identity, to destroy not only the buildings, but the whole idea of Warsaw as a capital.
After the war, there were even calls to leave the city and move the capital elsewhere, leaving the rubble as a symbol of martyrdom. But the Poles made a different decision - they decided to rebuild Warsaw. And they did so in a way that today can be considered a pioneering example of circular economy on a huge scale. Roughly 22 million cubic meters of rubble covered almost the entire city. It would have taken decades to remove this mass if classic solutions had been decided upon. Instead, unprecedented measures were taken - the rubble began to serve as building blocks for the new Warsaw. The tenements of the Old Town were rebuilt from broken bricks, stones and fragments of structures, as well as the foundations of new districts. Many buildings were literally built on the ruins of their predecessors. Warsaw has become a living example of architectural recycling on an unprecedented scale, and its reconstruction is proof that even in the most extreme conditions it is possible to create a city using its past. Can this grim history be an inspiration for contemporary construction? In a world that is increasingly turning to reducing waste and reusing materials, Warsaw's experiences of a few decades ago take on new meaning. Perhaps it's time to look at them as more than a testament to history - also as a lesson for the future.
A circular building, or perhaps an entire city?
Traditional construction follows a simple but waste-cultivating pattern: acquire - recycle - use - throw away. The closed-loop economy challenges this approach by proposing an entirely new model: designing buildings so that they don't have a single life, but can be dismantled, transformed and reused - without generating waste.
This is a radical shift in thinking about architecture. In the circular approach, every building is a resource, and its materials and structural elements should circulate in a closed system. In practice, this means, among other things, choosing the right materials - ones that can be easily recovered and reused, thereby reducing the carbon footprint and reducing the need for primary raw materials. The real revolution, however, is designing with the future in mind. Circular architecture assumes that a building is not a static structure, but a form that can change, adapt and last for decades - without the need to demolish and generate tons of waste. How to achieve this? By creating a flexible building framework that can be easily transformed, changing its function without interfering with the structure. This approach requires anticipating the future, but that's where its strength lies. Instead of treating buildings as closed designs that will become obsolete after a few decades, the circular economy leads architects to think of them also as objects that age.
It is not only permanent buildings that can shape the future of architecture, pop-up installations, temporary structures are playing an increasingly important role. These are spaces that appear and disappear, able to instantly transform unused spaces, giving them new short-term functions: from spaces for cultural and social activities to commercial initiatives. They are places of experimentation that allow solutions to be tested before they are permanently implemented.
The circular economy in construction is not just a matter of individual buildings - it's also thinking about the development of entire cities. Increasingly, urban planners see reuse as a viable alternative to urban sprawl, which is consuming more and more land and resources. Revitalizing existing structures makes it possible to reduce the environmental impact of construction and sustain life in existing neighborhoods. This approach corresponds to a concept that researchers describe as a "new model of sustainable urban revival" - one in which buildings are designed and modified with longevity in mind, construction waste is minimized, and energy stored in materials is not wasted. It's also a model that takes into account social and economic factors - preserving the local character of neighborhoods, strengthening community ties.
This is no surprise. If concrete were a country, it would be among the top polluters in the world, right after the United States and China. The construction sector as a whole - which includes both the construction of buildings themselves and the production of materials such as steel and concrete - accounts for nearly 40 percent of global emissions related to energy and industrial processes4. In 2018, construction activities consumed so much energy and raw materials that nearly half of the emissions could be attributed to the maintenance and operation of buildings alone. The cement industry alone accounts for up to 8 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions.
These are huge numbers, due to the chemical processes of cement production and the energy-intensive nature of the entire manufacturing process. In short: concrete, which we recognize as a symbol of sustainability and progress, is also one of the main culprits of the climate crisis. This means that every new building is another brick to the growing climate problem. In the face of these figures, building reuse is no longer just an interesting experiment - it's a necessity. Less building means fewer emissions. Less new materials means less waste. Instead of tearing down, it's better to dismantle and reuse.
Circular architecture requires forward-looking thinking, taking into account the creation of a building and how to dismantle it. The concept of dismantling by design, which assumes that buildings are created from the very beginning so that their elements can be easily recovered and reused, plays an important role here. This means that architects need to think carefully about the ways in which materials can be combined, their compatibility and future availability. Materials should be reusable without complicated processing, and individual components should be designed so that they can be easily identified and put back into circulation.
how are the leaders doing it?
There are already companies and cities in the world that systematically implement the recovery of building materials and are successful in this field. Their methods are based on several principles: thorough analysis before demolition - before anything is demolished, specialists identify which elements can be reused; inclusion of recovery requirements in demolition contracts - contractors commit to salvaging as much material as possible; standardization of the evaluation of recovered elements - this involvesconsistent grading rules that will allow materials from different construction sites to be used efficiently; creation of material storage and distribution networks - recovered elements go to special centers where they can be reused in other projects; public procurement promotes reuse - governments and local governments can require builders to use recycled materials.
Designers are also turning to technologies that improve occupant comfort and reduce excessive energy consumption, such as self-shading facades that reduce building heating and thus reduce the need for air conditioning. There is also an increasing use of atriums arranged to provide better interior lighting and reduce the need for artificial lighting. These measures are supported by a number of initiatives that promote an ecological approach to design, and awards and prizes for innovative developments further motivate architects and investors to implement these strategies on a larger scale.
Building reuse, revitalization, and retrofitting is more than just a way to reduce waste or lower emissions. It's also about restoring cities to memory, preserving traces of past times and giving new life to spaces that might have been forgotten. In cities, such projects act as anchors that allow residents to maintain a sense of continuity and belonging. Places that have been part of their daily lives for years get a second chance instead of disappearing - with a new function, but with their identity preserved. Adapting buildings is also about building relationships and community. Increasingly, transformed buildings are combining different functions, but it is important that they are not detached from their context, including affordability, that they act as places to strengthen neighborhood ties, and are a living part of the city - a story that can be continued.
a scenario for years to come
The future of architecture is no longer about constantly building from scratch, but about creating from what exists. Thanks to advances in research into materials, structural engineering and energy efficiency, more and more buildings that we would have considered obsolete not long ago can be given new life. Structural retrofits make it possible to strengthen old buildings, and modern thermal insulation methods improve energy efficiency without interfering with historic details. Reclaiming materials and repurposing space does not mean sacrificing quality or functionality, but it does offer the opportunity to create better-fitting places.
The next few years will certainly bring new challenges, adaptations and reuse can help solve them. Housing shortages, changing urban needs, the climate crisis - all require new approaches to the use of space. Buildings are beginning to be seen as resources - of materials, stories and opportunities. This new approach is not just about saving raw materials or reducing emissions, but also about shaping the space we live in more consciously and responsibly. The future of cities is not constant expansion, but wise use of what we already have.
Magdalena Milert
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